Study systems in Europe

Austria follows the three-cycle Bologna system:

• Bachelor – at least 180 ECTS, usually 3 years,
• Master – at least 120 ECTS, usually 2 years, after a bachelor's degree,
• Doctorate (Doktor/in or PhD) – at least 3 years, after a master's degree.

There are also diploma programmes (Diplomstudium) – long, single-cycle degrees of 4–6 years ending with the title Magister/Magistra or Diplom-Ingenieur/in. Law, for example, is studied this way. Medicine is also a diploma programme, but it ends with the title Dr. med. univ.

The academic year starts on 1 October. The winter semester runs until the end of January, the summer semester starts on 1 March.

Austria – bachelor's programmes
Austria – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Austria – master's programmes

Degrees in the two communities are similar – mostly only the names differ:

• bachelor / bachelier – 180 ECTS, i.e. 3 years; some programmes have 240 ECTS (4 years), e.g. nursing in Flanders,
• master – 60, 120 or 180 ECTS (1–3 years); in Flanders there are also advanced master's programmes after a master's degree (60–120 ECTS),
• doctorate – after a master's degree,
• in Flanders also the associate degree – 90–120 ECTS, a two-year professional programme.

The academic year starts in September – in Flanders in mid-September at the hogescholen and a week later at the universities. The year is divided into two semesters, with exam periods in January, June and (resits) in August–September.

Belgium – bachelor's programmes
Belgium – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Belgium – master's programmes

Higher education follows the Bologna system, with ECTS credits:

• professional bachelor (професионален бакалавър) – at least 180 ECTS, 3 years,
• bachelor (бакалавър) – 3–4 years,
• master (магистър) – from one to 5 years, depending on the programme,
• doctorate – 3–4 years.

Integrated (single-cycle) medical programmes also lead to a master's degree: at the Medical University of Varna, medicine and dentistry take 6 years and pharmacy 5 years.

Higher education has three cycles:

• undergraduate studies (prijediplomski studij) – the equivalent of a bachelor's degree,
• graduate studies (diplomski studij) – the equivalent of a master's degree,
• postgraduate studies (poslijediplomski studij) – above all the doctorate.

There are also integrated programmes (integrirani studij), which combine the first and second cycle, and professional programmes – short professional programmes, professional undergraduate programmes and specialist professional graduate programmes. One academic year is worth 60 ECTS, one semester 30 ECTS.

Croatia – bachelor's programmes
Croatia – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Croatia – master's programmes

Cyprus follows the Bologna system, with bachelor's, master's and doctoral degrees. Taking the University of Cyprus as an example:

• a bachelor's degree is 240 ECTS, usually 8 semesters (4 years); in special cases it can be extended to 12 semesters,
• a year of full-time study is 60 ECTS,
• grades are given on a 0–10 scale; you need at least 5 to pass,
• from the third semester you can add a minor worth 60 ECTS.

The academic year has an autumn semester (September–December) and a spring semester (January–May). Attendance is compulsory.

Czech higher education has three cycles:

• Bachelor (bakalářský) – usually 3–4 years,
• Master (magisterský) – usually 1–3 years after a bachelor's degree, or a single-cycle programme of 4–6 years (e.g. medicine, law),
• Doctorate (doktorský) – usually 3–4 years.

The academic year is split into a winter and a summer semester. Most programmes start in September.

Czechia – bachelor's programmes
Czechia – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Czechia – master's programmes

The Danish system follows the Bologna model:

• Bachelor at a university – 180 ECTS, i.e. 3 years,
• professional bachelor (professionsbachelor) – 180, 210 or 240 ECTS, i.e. 3–4 years,
• business academy programmes (erhvervsakademiuddannelser) – shorter practical degrees,
• Master (kandidat) – 120 ECTS, i.e. 2 years,
• Doctorate – 3 years.

The academic year starts in August or September.

Denmark – bachelor's programmes
Denmark – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Denmark – master's programmes

Estonia follows the three-cycle Bologna system:

• Bachelor (bakalaureus) – 180–240 ECTS, i.e. 3–4 years,
• Master (magister) – 60–120 ECTS, i.e. 1–2 years,
• Doctorate (PhD) – 180–240 ECTS, i.e. 3–4 years.

All doctoral programmes in Estonia are free of charge. The academic year starts at the end of August or the beginning of September – at the University of Tartu, bachelor's classes start on 31 August.

Estonia – bachelor's programmes
Estonia – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Estonia – master's programmes

How long your studies take depends on the type of institution:

• university – a bachelor's degree takes 3 years, a master's another 2 years,
• university of applied sciences – a bachelor's takes 3.5 to 4.5 years and a master's 1–1.5 years. To start a UAS master's, though, you need 2 years of work experience,
• doctorate – about 4 years, at universities only.

The academic year starts in August or September. On some programmes you can also start in January.

Finland – bachelor's programmes
Finland – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Finland – master's programmes

Studies are organised in the LMD system (licence – master – doctorat), in line with the Bologna Process:

• licence – the bachelor's degree, 3–4 years according to Study in Europe,
• master – 1–2 years after the licence,
• doctorat – 3–4 years; France has 267 doctoral schools (écoles doctorales).

Alongside the university path there are shorter professional diplomas, e.g. the BTS (brevet de technicien supérieur), and preparatory classes (classes préparatoires, CPGE), after which students sit the entrance exams for the grandes écoles.

The academic year starts in September or October, and the summer break lasts at least two months. Teaching combines lectures in large halls (amphithéâtre) with compulsory tutorials in small groups that link theory and practice.

France – bachelor's programmes
France – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
France – master's programmes

Degrees are divided into three cycles:

• Bachelor – usually 3–4 years,
• Master – usually 1–2 years, after a bachelor's degree,
• Doctorate (Promotion) – usually 3–5 years.

Some programmes do not end with a bachelor's degree but with a state examination (Staatsexamen) – this is how you study medicine, dentistry, pharmacy and law, among others. It usually takes 4–6 years. Some universities also still offer the old single-cycle degrees ending with a Diplom or Magister Artium (4–6 years).

The academic year is divided into a winter semester (Wintersemester) and a summer semester (Sommersemester).

Germany – bachelor's programmes
Germany – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Germany – master's programmes

Greece follows the Bologna system:

• bachelor's degree (ptychio) – 180–240 ECTS; in practice most programmes last 4 years; architecture, engineering, dentistry and pharmacy take 5 years, and medicine 6,
• master's degree – 1–2 years,
• doctorate – at least 3 years.

You'll find all bachelor's and master's programmes in the Ministry of Education's search engine.

Greece – bachelor's programmes
Greece – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Greece – master's programmes

Hungarian higher education has three cycles:

• Bachelor (alapképzés) – 6–8 semesters, around 180–240 ECTS,
• Master (mesterképzés) – 2–4 semesters, around 60–120 ECTS,
• Doctorate – 4 years (8 semesters), 240 credits; it can be extended by one year.

There are also single-cycle programmes (osztatlan képzés) of 10–12 semesters and around 300–360 ECTS – this is how medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine and law, among others, are studied.

The academic year has two semesters – autumn and spring – each with 14–15 weeks of classes and a 6–8-week exam period.

Hungary – bachelor's programmes
Hungary – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Hungary – master's programmes

Iceland follows the Bologna system:

• Bachelor (BA, BS) – 3 years,
• Master – 2 years,
• Doctorate.

For a bachelor's programme you need a certificate equivalent to the Icelandic matriculation examination (stúdentspróf) or another certificate at an equivalent level. The university's admissions office will confirm whether your certificate is recognised. Each faculty sets its own requirements for master's and doctoral programmes and lists them in the course catalogue.

An interesting option is Icelandic as a Second Language – the University of Iceland offers it as a bachelor's degree (BA) and as a shorter practical diploma.

Iceland – bachelor's programmes
Iceland – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Iceland – master's programmes

Degrees are linked to levels of the Irish National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ). At undergraduate level you will come across three levels:

• Level 6 – Higher Certificate – short vocational programmes,
• Level 7 – Ordinary Bachelor Degree,
• Level 8 – Honours Bachelor Degree – a full bachelor's degree that gives access to master's programmes.

After a bachelor's you can go on to a master's and then a doctorate (PhD). EU applicants apply for undergraduate programmes through the CAO; for master's and doctoral programmes you apply directly to the institution.

Minimum entry requirements differ for Level 8 and for Levels 6 and 7 – the CAO guidelines for EU/EFTA/UK school leaving certificates give the details.

Ireland – bachelor's programmes
Ireland – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Ireland – master's programmes

Italy follows the Bologna system; credits are called CFU (equivalent to ECTS):

• Laurea – bachelor's degree, 180 CFU, i.e. 3 years,
• Laurea magistrale – master's degree, 120 CFU, i.e. 2 years, ending with a thesis,
• Laurea magistrale a ciclo unico – single-cycle master's degree: 5 years (300 CFU) or 6 years (360 CFU); this is how you study medicine, dentistry, law, architecture, pharmacy and veterinary medicine, among others,
• Dottorato di ricerca – doctorate, at least 3 years.

The academic year usually starts in September or October. Exams take place in several sessions during the year, and many of them are oral.

Italy – bachelor's programmes
Italy – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Italy – master's programmes

There are several types of degree, including professional ones:

• Bachelor (bakalaurs) – 3–4 years; a professional bachelor's takes at least 4 years,
• Master (maģistrs) – 1–2 years, also as a professional master's,
• Doctorate (PhD) – usually 3–4 years,
• long professional programmes – 5–6 years, single-cycle degrees leading straight to a master's-level qualification (e.g. dentistry – 5 years),
• short-cycle programmes (first-level professional higher education) – 2–3 years.

Latvia counts credits its own way: 1 Latvian credit point equals 1.5 ECTS, and one year of study is 40 Latvian credit points, i.e. 60 ECTS.

The main intake is for the academic year starting in September. Some universities also have a spring intake, with classes starting in February.

Latvia – bachelor's programmes
Latvia – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Latvia – master's programmes

The University of Liechtenstein follows the Bologna system:

• Bachelor – two programmes: architecture (BSc Architecture) and business administration (BSc Business Administration); business administration takes 6 semesters and is worth 180 ECTS,
• Master – four programmes: architecture, Entrepreneurship, Innovation and Leadership, Innovative Finance and Information Systems; Information Systems, for example, takes 4 semesters and is worth 120 ECTS,
• Doctorate – in architecture, business economics and business law.

You can start in September or in February. The university expects full-time study to take about 40 hours of work a week.

Liechtenstein – bachelor's programmes
Liechtenstein – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Liechtenstein – master's programmes

Studies have three cycles and use ECTS – one year of study is 60 credits:

• Bachelor (bakalauras) – 180–240 ECTS, 3–4 years,
• Master (magistras) – 90–120 ECTS, 1–2 years,
• Doctorate – 4 years,
• integrated studies (vientisosios studijos) – e.g. medicine at Vilnius University takes 6 years (360 ECTS).

At Vilnius University classes start on 1 September. Some universities also have a spring intake.

Lithuania – bachelor's programmes
Lithuania – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Lithuania – master's programmes

Studies follow the Bologna system:

• bachelor – 6 semesters,
• master – usually 4 semesters, i.e. 120 ECTS; Uni.lu offers almost 50 master's programmes,
• doctorate – with a strong focus on research and international cooperation.

Outside the universities you can earn a BTS (brevet de technicien supérieur) – 2–3 years of professional training at public secondary schools, e.g. in animation, construction, healthcare and management.

The academic year at Uni.lu starts in mid-September. Many programmes are bilingual or trilingual (French, German, English), and some are taught entirely in English.

Luxembourg – bachelor's programmes
Luxembourg – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Luxembourg – master's programmes

The system is based on the European Qualifications Framework:

• Bachelor – 3–4 years; for example, a BA in History at UM takes 3 years and 180 ECTS,
• Master – 1–2 years,
• Doctorate (PhD) – 3–4 years.

The academic year at the University of Malta starts in October. Besides a full degree, you can also come on an Erasmus+ exchange or for a summer or language course.

Malta – bachelor's programmes
Malta – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Malta – master's programmes

How long you study depends on the type of institution:

• associate degree – 2 years (120 ECTS), only at hogescholen; it can lead on to an HBO bachelor's,
• bachelor – 3 years (180 ECTS) at a university, 4 years (240 ECTS) at a hogeschool,
• master – 1, 2 or 3 years (60, 120 or 180 ECTS) at a university, usually 1 year (60 ECTS) at a hogeschool, sometimes 2 years,
• doctorate (PhD) – usually 4 years; there is also a 2-year engineering doctorate (EngD).

All degrees correspond to levels 5–8 of the Dutch qualifications framework (NLQF). Keep in mind that a 3-year university bachelor's and a 4-year HBO bachelor's are different paths – choose the one that fits your plans for a master's.

Netherlands – bachelor's programmes
Netherlands – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Netherlands – master's programmes

North Macedonia follows the Bologna system with ECTS credits:

• first-cycle (bachelor's) studies – 180 or 240 ECTS, i.e. 3 or 4 years, depending on the programme,
• second-cycle (master's) studies – 60–120 ECTS, i.e. one or two years. After a four-year bachelor's (240 ECTS), a one-year master's of 60 ECTS is enough to reach 300 ECTS in total,
• specialist studies – usually 60 ECTS, for graduates of professional bachelor's programmes,
• integrated studies – e.g. medicine at UKIM takes 12 semesters, i.e. 6 years,
• doctorate – open to holders of an academic master's degree.

At UKIM, tuition fees and credits are counted per year of study, i.e. 60 ECTS.

Norway follows the Bologna system:

• Bachelor – 180 credits, i.e. 3 years; exceptions include music performance, where the bachelor's takes 4 years,
• Master – 2 years,
• Doctorate – 3–4 years.

Some programmes, including medicine, nursing and teacher training, have additional subject requirements or minimum grades.

Most master's programmes and many courses at bachelor's level are taught in English.

Norway – bachelor's programmes
Norway – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Norway – master's programmes

Levels of study are set by the Law on Higher Education and Science:

• first-cycle programmes – at least 6 semesters, ending with a bachelor's degree (licencjat); engineering programmes – at least 7 semesters,
• second-cycle programmes (master's) – 3 to 5 semesters,
• long-cycle master's programmes – 9 to 12 semesters, e.g. medicine or law,
• doctoral schools – 6 to 8 semesters.

A programme can have a practical profile (more than half of the ECTS credits for practical classes) or a general academic profile (more than half of the ECTS credits for classes linked to research). Part-time programmes may last longer than full-time ones. The academic year runs from 1 October to 30 September and is divided into two semesters.

Poland – bachelor's programmes
Poland – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Poland – master's programmes

Portugal follows the Bologna system:

• Licenciatura (bachelor's) – 180–240 ECTS (6–8 semesters) at universities, usually 180 ECTS (6 semesters) at polytechnics,
• Mestrado (master's) – 90–120 ECTS, i.e. 3–4 semesters, after a bachelor's degree,
• Mestrado integrado – an integrated master's of 300–360 ECTS (10–12 semesters), offered only at universities and only where EU rules require it for a profession, e.g. medicine,
• Doutoramento (doctorate) – usually 6–8 semesters and 180–240 ECTS.

There are also short vocational TESP courses (Curso Técnico Superior Profissional) – they don't lead to an academic degree.

Portugal – bachelor's programmes
Portugal – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Portugal – master's programmes

Higher education has three cycles and uses ECTS credits:

• licență (bachelor's) – usually 3–4 years, 180–240 ECTS,
• master – 1–2 years, 90–120 ECTS,
• doctorat – usually 4 years,
• integrated programmes – medicine, dentistry and veterinary medicine take 6 years (360 ECTS), pharmacy 5 years (300 ECTS).

The academic year starts in the first week of October and has two 14-week semesters. With your degree you automatically receive a diploma supplement in Romanian and English.

Romania – bachelor's programmes
Romania – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Romania – master's programmes

Serbia follows the Bologna system with ECTS credits. You can choose from:

• bachelor's studies (osnovne studije) – 180–240 ECTS, i.e. 3–4 years,
• master's studies (master) – 60–120 ECTS, 1–2 years,
• specialist studies – 60 ECTS, 1 year, to deepen your professional knowledge,
• integrated studies – 300–360 ECTS, 5–6 years, mainly medicine, dentistry and pharmacy,
• doctorate – 180 ECTS, at least 3 years.

Each level can have an academic profile (universities) or an applied profile (applied studies).

The academic year starts in September or October and lasts until June. Institutions usually hold six exam periods: in January and February, in June and early July, and in late July and August. If you pass everything by the July exam period, you have the summer off.

Slovak higher education has three cycles:

• Bachelor (bakalárske) – usually 3–4 years,
• Master (magisterské; in technical fields inžinierske) – usually 1–2 years after a bachelor's degree,
• Doctorate (PhD) – usually 3–4 years.

Some programmes, such as medicine, are single-cycle. The academic year is split into a winter and a summer semester.

Slovakia – bachelor's programmes
Slovakia – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Slovakia – master's programmes

Slovenia follows the Bologna system:

• first cycle (bachelor) – 3 or 4 years, either academic or professional,
• second cycle (master) – 1 or 2 years; there are also single-cycle master's programmes, e.g. medicine or veterinary medicine,
• third cycle – doctorate.

One ECTS credit stands for 25–30 hours of your work, and a full year for 1,500–1,800 hours.

The academic year runs from October to the end of September the following year. The winter semester usually lasts from October to January, the summer semester from February to mid-July.

Slovenia – bachelor's programmes
Slovenia – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Slovenia – master's programmes

Spain follows the Bologna system, but its bachelor's degrees are longer than in many other countries:

• Grado (bachelor's) – 240 ECTS, usually 4 years; the exceptions are programmes for which EU rules require 300 or 360 ECTS (e.g. medicine),
• Máster – 60, 90 or 120 ECTS, i.e. one to two years,
• Doctorado – once you have completed at least 300 ECTS in total at the two previous levels.

Some master's degrees are so-called másteres habilitantes – they qualify you for a regulated profession, such as teacher or lawyer. The academic year starts in the autumn.

Spain – bachelor's programmes
Spain – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Spain – master's programmes

Studies are measured in credits called högskolepoäng (hp) – one year of full-time study is 60 hp, or about 40 weeks. The degrees are:

• kandidatexamen (bachelor's) – 180 hp, i.e. 3 years,
• magisterexamen – 60 hp, one year after a bachelor's degree,
• masterexamen – 120 hp, 2 years after a bachelor's degree,
• Doctorate – 4 years.

There are also professional degrees (yrkesexamen) that lead to a specific profession – for some professions in Sweden you need exactly this kind of degree.

Most programmes start in the autumn (August/September), some also in the spring.

Sweden – bachelor's programmes
Sweden – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Sweden – master's programmes

Studies at universities and institutes of technology have three cycles:

• Bachelor – 3 years of full-time study,
• Master – one and a half to two years, 90–120 ECTS,
• doctorate – after a master's degree.

The academic year is divided into an autumn semester and a spring semester.

Switzerland – bachelor's programmes
Switzerland – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
Switzerland – master's programmes

Turkey follows the Bologna system. The levels of study are:

• short-cycle programmes (önlisans) – 2 years, mainly at vocational schools,
• Bachelor (lisans) – usually 4 years; medicine and related fields 5–6 years,
• Master (yüksek lisans) – 1–2 years,
• Doctorate – usually 4 years.

Keep the preparatory year (hazırlık) in mind. If your level in the language of instruction is not high enough, you first study Turkish or English. Your studies can therefore take a year longer.

Programmes fall into these main levels:

• undergraduate – first-cycle programmes, usually ending with a Bachelor's degree (BA, BSc); you apply through UCAS,
• postgraduate taught – master's programmes (e.g. MA, MSc); many take only one year – the Chevening scholarship, for example, funds these one-year programmes,
• postgraduate research – research degrees, above all the doctorate (PhD).

The academic year usually starts in September. For master's and doctoral programmes you apply directly to the university, not through UCAS.

United Kingdom – bachelor's programmes
United Kingdom – integrated (single-cycle) programmes
United Kingdom – master's programmes